Palestinian identity is central to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, reflecting a history shaped by migration, cultural evolution, and more recently, displacement and resistance. While contemporary narratives often focus on political struggles, the Palestinian story is one of resilience, rooted in millennia of history and adaptation.
The Palestinian world
The global Palestinian population, estimated at 14.8 million according to the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics, reflects a history of displacement and adaptation. Within historic Palestine, 3.2 million reside in the West Bank, 2.2 million in Gaza, and 2 million in Israel. Neighboring Arab states host the largest external communities, including over 2.3 million Palestinian registered refugees in Jordan. Beyond the region, diasporas have flourished in countries like Chile (500,000) and the Gulf states, where Palestinians have established vibrant professional communities. This widespread dispersal underscores the fragmentation and resilience of Palestinian identity.
This global dispersal marks a dramatic shift from historical patterns. Before World War I, Palestine's population of 690,000 was overwhelmingly Arab, with Muslims comprising 89%, Christians 10%, and Druze 1%. Today's Palestinian communities face varying challenges: in Lebanon, severe restrictions on employment and property ownership; in Jordan, full citizenship rights while maintaining Palestinian identity; in Gaza, a protracted war with Israel; and in the West Bank, a complex system of movement restrictions and settlements.
Evolution of ‘Palestine’: From geography to identity
For much recorded history, "Palestine" referred to a geographic region rather than a distinct national identity. The name traces back to ancient sources, including the Egyptian Peleset and Hebrew Plishtim, which likely referred to the Philistines, a seafaring people who settled the coastal plains in the 12th century BCE. The Romans later solidified the term “Palestina” in the 2nd century CE following the suppression of the Bar Kochba Revolt, intending to diminish Jewish ties to the land by renaming the province Judea as Syria Palaestina. For centuries, "Palestine" continued as a geographic term under successive empires, from Byzantine to Ottoman, describing a territory with diverse populations including Arabs, Jews, and others.
The Arabic term Filastin first appeared in early Islamic texts, continuing the legacy of the Roman and Byzantine designations. Under Islamic rule, Filastin referred primarily to a district (jund) of greater Syria (Bilad al-Sham), and its usage was largely administrative.
However, even in this context, the term began to carry cultural and regional connotations for the people who lived there. In the modern era, as competing nationalist movements arose during the decline of the Ottoman Empire and the British Mandate period, the name “Palestine” became a focal point of identity. Over time, Filastin transformed from a geographic label into a political and national symbol, central to the Palestinian struggle for self-determination.
Read more: What Does Free Palestine Mean
The DNA of Palestinian history
Genetic science paints a complex portrait of Palestinian origins, revealing deep historical roots and the impact of migration over millennia. Palestinians, like other populations in the region, are part of a broader Levantine genetic family that includes Lebanese, Syrians, and Jews. These groups share significant genetic signatures, reflecting their common ancestry in the Southern Levant, despite their modern socio-political distinctions.
Palestinian genetic heritage is rooted in the Bronze Age inhabitants of the region, aligning them closely with the ancient populations of Canaan. However, their DNA also reflects the influence of historical migrations and cultural shifts, particularly those associated with the spread of Islam. Following the Islamic expansion in the 7th century CE, the Levant became a key crossroads for peoples moving between Europe, Asia, and Africa, leaving traces of their genetic imprint.
Modern Palestinians can generally be grouped into two genetic clusters. One group shares characteristics with populations from Europe and Central Asia, hinting at connections formed during periods of Hellenistic, Roman, and Crusader influence. The other group shows stronger affinities with Middle Eastern and African populations, a testament to Palestine's historical ties to the broader Arab and Islamic world.
Notably, genetic studies highlight a close relationship between Palestinians and Jews. Both groups carry markers of their shared ancient ancestry in the Levant, though their genetic pathways diverged due to historical events, such as the Jewish Diaspora and the Arabization of Palestine. This shared genetic heritage underscores the deep historical interconnectedness of the region's peoples, even as they have developed distinct cultural and religious identities over time.
In this genetic mosaic, the history of Palestine as a land of convergence and coexistence is written into the DNA of its people, illustrating how the region has continuously bridged cultures and civilizations across thousands of years.
Read more: What Does Pro-Palestinian Mean
Language and identity
Palestinian Arabic dialects offer a rich lens into the region's multilayered heritage, revealing the influence of ancient languages, migration patterns, and cultural shifts. There are three primary dialect groups: urban (madani), rural (fallahi), and Bedouin, each representing distinct historical experiences and social dynamics within Palestine.
The urban dialects, which are prevalent in cities like Jerusalem, Nablus, and Gaza, share strong similarities with Syrian and Lebanese urban dialects. This reflects a shared Levantine urban culture that has historically transcended modern political boundaries, fostering interconnectedness among cities across the Levant. These dialects often incorporate vocabulary from Ottoman Turkish, Persian, and European languages, echoing periods of regional governance and trade influence.
Rural dialects, known as fallahi, preserve archaic features, including sounds and grammatical structures that trace back to pre-Arabic languages like Aramaic. This continuity suggests that rural Palestinian communities have maintained cultural and linguistic transmission across generations, highlighting a deep-rooted local identity that predates the Arab conquests. Rural dialects are often characterized by unique vocabulary and expressions that reflect agrarian life and a longstanding connection to the land.
Bedouin dialects, which vary significantly between groups with Hijazi-Sinai origins and those linked to the Syrian Desert, reflect the nomadic heritage and distinct migration histories within Palestinian society. These dialects incorporate elements of Classical Arabic and sometimes distinct phonetic patterns that signal ancient ties to Arabian tribal movements. The Bedouin dialects also capture the fluidity of identity in the region, where borders were often less significant than kinship and tribal affiliations.
These dialect groups do not exist in isolation; rather, they intersect and influence each other in daily communication, urbanization, and cultural exchange. The linguistic diversity within Palestinian Arabic thus symbolizes a broader history of interaction and coexistence, blending influences from Aramaic, Canaanite, and classical Arabic sources while integrating elements from the many civilizations that have passed through the region.
Language, therefore, becomes a testament to the layered and dynamic identity of Palestinians, encapsulating the complex interplay between continuity and adaptation in a land that has always been a bridge between cultures and epochs.
Islamic conquest and cultural formation
When Muslim armies entered Palestine in 634 CE, they encountered a society of remarkable diversity. Predominantly Christian, the region was home to communities speaking Palestinian Aramaic in rural areas and Greek in coastal cities, reflecting its Byzantine heritage. Jewish communities remained significant, particularly in the Galilee and coastal towns. Arab traders and settlers were also part of this pre-Islamic tapestry, evidenced by Arabic inscriptions and accounts of trade networks connecting Palestine to the Arabian Peninsula.
The transformation under Islamic rule unfolded gradually, through three interconnected processes.
First, new garrison cities such as Ramla—founded in 705 CE by the Umayyad caliph Suleiman ibn Abd al-Malik—became vibrant centers of cultural exchange. In these urban hubs, Arab soldiers, local converts to Islam, and Christian and Jewish merchants interacted, creating spaces where ideas, practices, and goods flowed freely. This environment fostered the integration of Arab-Islamic and indigenous traditions, laying the groundwork for a shared cultural framework.
Second, the settlement of Arab tribes across the region facilitated deeper integration. These tribes, hailing from the Arabian Peninsula, intermarried with local populations, merging their cultural practices, dialects, and traditions with those of the indigenous inhabitants. This blending is particularly evident in the agricultural and culinary practices of rural Palestine, which show influences from both pre-Islamic traditions and Arab innovations.
Third, Arabic gradually became the lingua franca of the region. Its close relationship with Aramaic eased its adoption, particularly in rural areas, where linguistic shifts often mirrored broader social and religious transformations. By the early Abbasid period, Arabic had become firmly entrenched as the dominant language of administration, culture, and daily life, replacing Greek and Aramaic in most contexts.
The Umayyad period (661–750 CE) was a pivotal era for Palestinian society, marked by both material and cultural advancements. Iconic architectural achievements such as the Dome of the Rock (completed in 691 CE) and the Al-Aqsa Mosque solidified Jerusalem’s importance as a spiritual and political center of Islam. These sites, while rooted in Islamic traditions, also reflected the multi-religious character of the city, with Jewish, Christian, and Islamic influences shaping its urban landscape.
In the countryside, agricultural life thrived, with local communities cultivating olives, wheat, and figs—staples that connected them to the land and its rhythms. Urban centers like Jerusalem, Ramla, and Tiberias emerged as bustling hubs of trade and intellectual exchange, their markets attracting merchants from across the Mediterranean and the Islamic world. These cities became melting pots where diverse communities interacted and contributed to a shared cultural fabric.
This early Islamic period laid the foundations for enduring patterns in Palestinian society. Religious coexistence—underpinned by Islamic predominance—became a hallmark of the region. The fusion of Arab and indigenous traditions created a cultural identity that was both distinct and dynamic. Moreover, strong ties to both rural and urban landscapes fostered a resilience that allowed Palestinian society to adapt and thrive through centuries of political upheaval.
Ottoman era: Foundations of modern identity
The Ottoman conquest of Palestine in 1516-17 integrated the region into a vast empire while preserving its distinct character. Jerusalem held special status, reporting directly to Istanbul, while ports like Jaffa and Acre flourished as Mediterranean trading hubs. Under the Ottoman administration, Palestine's traditional urban-rural dynamics evolved into patterns that would profoundly shape later national consciousness.
The period saw the rise of influential notable families who would later play crucial roles in Palestinian nationalism. The Husseinis and Khalidis in Jerusalem, the Tuqans in Nablus, and other prominent families served as intermediaries between Ottoman authorities and local populations. Through land ownership, religious authority, and administrative positions, they created power centers that would become foundations for Palestinian political leadership.
The nineteenth century brought transformative changes through Ottoman reforms. The 1858 Land Code, intended to modernize property rights, reshaped Palestinian society. While some peasant families successfully registered their traditional holdings, many urban notables accumulated large estates, creating new patterns of land ownership. Meanwhile, Ottoman state schools and European missionary institutions exposed a new generation to emerging ideas of nationalism and modernity.
By the late Ottoman period, three distinct political currents emerged among Palestinians: Ottomanism among established notable families, Arabism gaining popularity among educated youth, and a growing local patriotism that would eventually evolve into Palestinian nationalism. The Young Turk Revolution of 1908 initially sparked hopes for greater autonomy but ultimately pushed many Palestinians toward more localized forms of identity as Turkish nationalist policies alienated Arab populations.
The British Mandate: Crystallization of national identity
The collapse of Ottoman rule in 1917-18 and establishing the British Mandate marked a decisive turn in Palestinian history. The Balfour Declaration—Britain's promise to support a "national home for the Jewish people" in Palestine—fundamentally altered the political landscape, namely Zionism, and accelerated the development of Palestinian national consciousness.
Initially, Palestinians sought security through broader Arab unity, supporting Faisal's Arab government in Damascus. However, France's overthrow of Faisal's kingdom in 1920 forced Palestinians to confront their political fate independently. The 1920s saw the emergence of new political organizations reflecting both continuity and change. The Muslim-Christian Associations represented traditional notable-led politics, while groups like al-Nadi al-'Arabi attracted younger, more radical activists. The Third Palestinian Arab Congress in 1920 marked a crucial moment of unity, establishing the Arab Executive Committee to lead opposition to British policies.
The period witnessed the rise of distinctly Palestinian cultural expression. Newspapers like Filastin became crucial platforms for political debate. Poets like Ibrahim Tuqan and Abd al-Rahim Mahmoud captured the spirit of resistance in powerful works that helped forge national consciousness.
The Great Palestinian Revolt (1936-1939) demonstrated unprecedented national unity through a six-month general strike and armed resistance. However, Britain's harsh suppression, including the exile or imprisonment of key leaders, left Palestinian society politically vulnerable. By the eve of World War II, Palestinians had developed a clear national identity but found their leadership decimated at a crucial historical moment.
War and displacement: Watershed of 1948
The events of 1947-48 transformed Palestinian society irrevocably. The UN Partition Plan of November 1947, which proposed dividing the territory into separate Jewish and Arab states, was accepted by Jewish leadership despite its limitations, Palestinian leaders and neighboring Arab states rejected it outright, leading to the outbreak of war.
The consequences were devastating for Palestinian society. Major urban centers were depopulated: Haifa's Palestinian population fled en masse in April 1948; the prosperous port city of Jaffa was largely evacuated. By the time armistice agreements were signed in 1949, over 400 Palestinian villages were depopulated, and approximately 750,000 Palestinians had become refugees in neighboring Arab states: Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, and Egypt.
This displacement created distinct but interconnected Palestinian populations, each developing under different conditions. In Lebanon, Palestinians faced severe restrictions, were excluded from most professions, and were denied property rights. Jordan took a different approach, offering citizenship while allowing Palestinians to maintain their distinct identity. Syria initially provided extensive civil rights while preserving refugee status. Gaza, under Egyptian administration, remained isolated and impoverished, while the West Bank, annexed by Jordan, saw refugees integrate into existing Palestinian communities.
The refugee experience profoundly shaped Palestinian political consciousness. The loss of land and property, preserved in family documents and memories, created a powerful drive for return that would influence Palestinian politics for generations. These events, known to Palestinians as al-Nakba (the Catastrophe), became central to Palestinian national identity and remain a defining element of the Palestinian narrative.
Rise of Palestinian nationalism: From refugees to resistance
The aftermath of 1948 catalyzed new forms of Palestinian political organization. The refugee experience, rather than destroying Palestinian identity, sparked its transformation. Palestinians in camps preserved village and family ties, developed educational networks, and maintained cultural traditions. This period saw high rates of school attendance and professional achievement among refugees, with education becoming valued as portable capital that could survive displacement.
The establishment of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) in 1964 marked a crucial turning point. Initially created under Arab League sponsorship, the PLO transformed into an independent voice following the 1967 war and the rise of Fatah under Yasser Arafat's leadership. The organization evolved into a sophisticated structure aspiring to be a government-in-exile, developing institutions from the Palestinian National Council to social service networks.
The PLO's base shifted from Jordan to Lebanon following the Black September conflict of 1970. In Lebanon, the organization established quasi-autonomous regions and extensive social services, helping maintain Palestinian identity in exile. However, its military activities. The PLO's actions included terrorist attacks like the 1972 Munich Olympics massacre, where Palestinian militants murdered 11 Israeli athletes. While these actions brought international attention to the Palestinian cause, they also damaged the movement's legitimacy and resulted in severe Israeli reprisals against Palestinian communities.
Despite setbacks, including forced evacuation from Lebanon to Tunisia in 1982, the PLO achieved significant diplomatic gains. It gained recognition as the "sole legitimate representative of the Palestinian people" and observer status at the United Nations, transforming the Palestinian cause from a refugee problem into a national liberation movement.
The Intifada and the path to Oslo
The First Intifada, erupting in December 1987, marked a new phase in Palestinian resistance. What began as spontaneous protests in Gaza's Jabalia refugee camp evolved into a sustained uprising characterized by mass civil disobedience. The image of young Palestinians confronting Israeli troops with stones captured world attention and demonstrated the unsustainability of the occupation.
This period also saw the emergence of Hamas as a powerful new force in Palestinian politics. Founded in 1987, Hamas offered an Islamic alternative to the PLO's secular nationalism, gaining support through extensive social services, particularly in Gaza. The uprising revealed growing tensions between secular and religious visions of Palestinian nationalism that would later prove crucial.
The Intifada's impact led to the Oslo Accords of 1993, marking the first direct negotiations between Israel and the PLO. The establishment of the Palestinian Authority (PA) in 1994 brought limited self-governance to parts of the West Bank and Gaza. However, initial optimism quickly faded. The division of the West Bank into Areas A, B, and C created a fragmented territory, while continued settlement expansion undermined prospects for Palestinian statehood.
Internal tensions grew as Hamas and other groups opposed to Oslo conducted attacks against Israeli civilians, while the PA found itself caught between Israeli security demands and popular resistance. The process culminated in the 2000 Camp David Summit, where Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Barak offered unprecedented concessions including withdrawal from most of the West Bank and arrangements for Jerusalem. However, PLO Chairman Yasser Arafat rejected the proposals and refused to present a counter-offer or end the conflict, leading to the summit's failure and subsequent collapse of the peace process.
The Second Intifada and Contemporary Challenges
The outbreak of the Second Intifada in 2000 marked a violent turn from the Oslo period. Unlike the largely popular uprising of the First Intifada, this period saw intense armed conflict. Palestinian militant groups, including Hamas, Islamic Jihad, and the Al-Aqsa Martyrs' Brigades, launched waves of suicide bombings targeting Israeli civilians in buses, restaurants, and public spaces, killing hundreds of civilians including many children.
The Passover massacre at the Park Hotel in Netanya, which killed 30 civilians at a holiday meal, marked a particular low point. Israel responded with large-scale military operations and the construction of the separation barrier. The human cost was devastating: over 3,000 Palestinians and 1,000 Israelis killed between 2000 and 2005.
The death of Yasser Arafat in 2004 and Hamas's surprise victory in the 2006 Palestinian legislative elections led to a profound split in Palestinian politics. By 2007, Hamas controlled Gaza while Fatah maintained authority in the West Bank. This division created two Palestinian administrations with different approaches and international relationships, severely undermining national aspirations.
Today's Palestinian society faces multiple challenges. Gaza, under Hamas control and Israeli blockade since 2007, faced severe economic hardship and recurring conflicts with Israel, culminating in the devastating 2023-2024 war which displaced most of its population and destroyed much of its infrastructure. The West Bank, under PA control, sees continued settlement expansion fragmenting Palestinian territory. The PA faces a legitimacy crisis, with elections repeatedly postponed since 2006.
Yet Palestinian identity remains resilient. New forms of resistance have emerged, from digital activism to the BDS movement. Young Palestinians increasingly engage in creative forms of protest, while maintaining connections across geographical divides. Despite political stagnation, territorial fragmentation, and the seemingly remote prospect of statehood, Palestinians continue to preserve and reinvent their national identity under challenging circumstances.
Bibliography
Agranat-Tamir, L., Waldman, S., Martin, M., Gokhman, D., Mishol, N., Eshel, T., . . . Reich, D. (2020). The Genomic History of the Bronze Age Southern Levant. Cell, 181(5), 1146–1157. e11.
Haber, M., Gauguier, D., Youhanna, S., Patterson, N., Moorjani, P., et al. (2013). Genome-Wide Diversity in the Levant Reveals Recent Structuring by Culture. PLoS Genetics, 9(2), e1003316.
Fernandes, V., Triska, P., Pereira, J. B., Alshamali, F., Rito, T., Machado, A., . . . Pereira, L. (2015). Genetic Stratigraphy of Key Demographic Events in Arabia. PLOS ONE, 10(3), e0118625.
Nebel, A., Filon, D., Weiss, D. A., Weale, M., Faerman, M., Oppenheim, A., & Thomas, M. G. (2000). High-resolution Y chromosome haplotypes of Israeli and Palestinian Arabs reveal geographic substructure and substantial overlap with haplotypes of Jews. Human Genetics, 107(6), 630–641.
Mathieson, I., Alpaslan-Roodenberg, S., Posth, C., Szécsényi-Nagy, A., Rohland, N., Mallick, S., . . . Krause, J. (2018). The Genomic History of Southeastern Europe. Nature, 555(7695), 197–203.
Elon Gilad is an Israeli author, journalist, and linguist. His work focuses on uncovering the historical roots of contemporary issues, particularly in current affairs, Jewish history, and the Hebrew language. Gilad is the author of "The Secret History of Judaism." His analytical pieces draw on his diverse background to provide unique insights into today's complex issues, explaining current situations through the lens of historical development.